Text structure is the way an author organizes information in a text. Informational texts are usually built around one of five common text structures: description, sequence, compare and contrast, cause and effect, and problem and solution. Stories follow a narrative structure with characters, setting, plot and resolution. When students recognize the structure of a text, they can predict what kind of information comes next, find the main idea more easily and remember more of what they read.
What is text structure?
Every author has a purpose, and the organization of a text follows from that purpose. An author who wants to explain how a volcano erupts will likely describe steps in order. An author who wants to explain why the Dust Bowl happened will focus on causes and effects. Text structure is the "skeleton" that holds the ideas together, at the level of a whole book, a chapter, a section or a single paragraph.
Knowing the types of text structure is a key reading comprehension skill. The Institute of Education Sciences practice guide on improving reading comprehension in kindergarten through third grade recommends teaching students to identify and use text organization. Text structure is also part of state English language arts standards, which ask students to describe the overall structure of events, ideas, concepts or information in a text.
The five types of informational text structure
Informational text (also called expository or nonfiction text) explains or informs. Textbooks, articles, reports and many websites are informational. Most teachers focus on these five informational text structures, sometimes called expository text structure patterns. Each has typical signal words (also called clue words or transition words) that help readers identify it.
1. Description
The author describes a topic by listing its features, characteristics or examples. There is no required order.
Signal words: for example, for instance, such as, is like, includes, characteristics, in addition, also.
Example: "The monarch butterfly has bright orange wings with black veins and white spots. It is found across North America. Monarchs feed on nectar from many kinds of flowers."
2. Sequence (chronological order)
The author presents events or steps in the order they happen. Timelines, biographies, recipes and instructions use this structure.
Signal words: first, next, then, after, before, finally, during, dates and times.
Example: "First, the caterpillar hatches from its egg. Next, it eats and grows. Then it forms a chrysalis. Finally, an adult butterfly emerges."
3. Compare and contrast
The author explains how two or more things are alike (compare) and how they are different (contrast).
Signal words: similar, alike, both, same as, however, but, unlike, on the other hand, in contrast, whereas.
Example: "Both frogs and toads are amphibians. However, frogs have smooth, moist skin, while toads have dry, bumpy skin."
4. Cause and effect
The author explains why something happened (the cause) and what happened as a result (the effect).
Signal words: because, since, so, as a result, therefore, due to, consequently, if...then, leads to.
Example: "Because the region had little rain for several years, crops failed. As a result, many families left their farms."
5. Problem and solution
The author describes a problem and one or more ways it was or could be solved.
Signal words: problem, solution, issue, challenge, solve, answer, one way to, to fix this, the question is.
Example: "Many students forget their homework at school. One solution is a daily checklist that students review before leaving the classroom."
Real texts often mix structures. A chapter might use sequence overall, while one paragraph uses cause and effect. Teachers usually start with short paragraphs that follow one clear structure and then move to longer, mixed texts.
Text features vs. text structure
Text features and text structure are related but not the same. Text features are the parts of a text that help readers find and understand information, such as headings, bold words, captions, diagrams, a table of contents and a glossary. Text structure is how the ideas themselves are organized. Headings and other features can be clues to the structure, for example a heading that says "Causes of the Civil War."
Narrative text structure
Narrative texts tell a story. Fiction, folktales and many personal stories follow a predictable pattern often called story grammar:
- Characters: who the story is about.
- Setting: where and when the story takes place.
- Problem or conflict: what the main character wants or must deal with.
- Events (plot): what happens as the character tries to solve the problem, often building to a climax.
- Resolution: how the problem is solved and how the story ends.
Many teachers use a "story mountain" or plot diagram with exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and resolution. Understanding narrative structure helps students retell stories, make predictions and write their own stories.
Teaching text structure with graphic organizers
A graphic organizer gives each text structure a visual shape, which makes an abstract idea concrete:
- Description: a web or concept map with the topic in the center.
- Sequence: a numbered flow chart or timeline.
- Compare and contrast: a Venn diagram or T-chart.
- Cause and effect: boxes connected by arrows.
- Problem and solution: a problem box leading to one or more solution boxes.
- Narrative: a story map or story mountain.
Effective text structure instruction usually follows a gradual release: the teacher names the structure and its signal words, models finding it in a short passage while thinking aloud, fills in the organizer with the class, then has students practice with partners and finally on their own. Students can also write short paragraphs in each structure, since writing and reading support each other.
A few practical tips for teachers and parents: introduce one structure at a time, use short and clearly organized passages first, keep a signal-word poster or card on the desk, and ask students to summarize a passage using the matching organizer. Over time, students learn to analyze longer texts and identify the key structure on their own.
Why text structure matters for students with learning disabilities
Many students with a learning disability, including dyslexia or a specific learning disability in reading comprehension, do not notice how a text is organized on their own. They may read a passage as a list of unconnected facts, which makes it hard to find the main idea or remember details. Students with working memory or executive functioning difficulties may lose track of ideas in longer texts.
Explicit teaching of text structure gives these students a plan for reading. Research reviews on students with learning disabilities have found that explicit instruction in text structure, often with graphic organizers, can improve their comprehension of expository text. It also supports metacognition, because students learn to ask themselves, "How is this text organized, and what am I looking for?"
Text structure instruction fits well with differentiated instruction and Universal Design for Learning. Helpful supports include signal-word lists, color-coding, partially completed organizers and shorter passages. For students with an IEP, a goal might read: "Given a grade-level informational paragraph, the student will identify its text structure and complete the matching graphic organizer with 80% accuracy in four of five trials."
Frequently asked questions about text structure
What are the 5 types of text structure?
The five common informational text structures are description, sequence (chronological order), compare and contrast, cause and effect, and problem and solution.
Are there 7 types of text structures?
Some teaching materials list more than five by splitting or adding categories, for example separating chronological order from steps in a process, or adding question and answer or narrative structure. The core five remain the most widely taught.
How do you identify text structure?
Ask what the author is trying to do: describe, explain steps, compare, explain why something happened or present a solution. Then look for signal words and text features, such as headings, that match that purpose.
What is the difference between text structure and text features?
Text structure is how the ideas are organized. Text features are tools such as headings, captions, diagrams and bold words that help readers navigate the text.
Why is it important to teach text structure?
Recognizing text structure helps students find the main idea, organize information, take notes, summarize and remember what they read. It also helps them organize their own writing.
